The Effect of Terrorism and Insurgency on the Security of African Nations: An Appraisal
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Published:
Aug 30, 2022
Keywords:
African Nations, Appraisal, Insurgency, Security, Terrorism
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Abstract
Recently, Africa has been labeled a theatre of war due to incessant terrorist attacks that plagued its landscape. This situation, among others, explains why the continent's development has been slow or stagnated in all spheres, and Africa has been accorded little recognition in the international arena. Against this background, this paper examined the effects of terrorism on the security of African nations. The descriptive method was adopted, and a secondary source of data collection was used in sourcing relevant data. At the same time, content analysis was utilized as a framework for analyzing the data. The paper revealed that though terrorism and insurgency have been issues rooted in history, they have recently become serious challenges to the security of African nations, impacting negatively on African nations and their development. The paper posited that religious prejudice, deprivations, and the feeling of neglect are the underlying factors breeding terrorism and insurgency in Africa. It further averred that though a lot of combative efforts have been made to checkmate the trend of these phenomena in Africa, such have, however, achieved limited success. It is due to a combination of factors ranging from weak leadership to confronting the phenomena, corruption, and the porosity of national borders, which encouraged illegal migration of people that form the core of terrorists'/insurgents militia, and accentuated arms proliferation, among others. The paper is a modest effort in order to arrest this unpleasant situation and extreme religious radicalism, which should be timely nipped in the mud. The security architecture of African nations needs to be re-engineered and directed towards generating employment opportunities for their increasing youth population. Also, collaboration in intelligence gathering and information sharing should be encouraged among African nations to ensure early response to such challenges.
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Rosenje, Musharafa Olapeju, Mr. Onyebuchi, Udochukwu Joel, & Adeniyi, Oluwatobi Peter. (2022). The Effect of Terrorism and Insurgency on the Security of African Nations: An Appraisal. PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development (PJGD), 3(2), 33-61. https://doi.org/10.46404/panjogov.v3i2.3939
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Research-based/ Original Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
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Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A sociological analysis. New York: McGraw Hill.
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences and control. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
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Bester, P. C. (2015). The economic consequences of terrorism: A South African perspective. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Public Management, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
Bulhan, H. A. (1985). Frantz Fanon and the psychology of oppression. New York: Plenum Press.
Burgess, S. F. (2015). Comparative challenges in securing the Horn of Africa and Sahara. Comparative Strategy 34 (2), 202-217. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2015.1017381.
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Heng, Y. (2002). Unraveling the ‘war’ on terrorism: A risk management exercise in war clothing? Security and Dialogue, 33 (2), 227-242.
Horowitz, D. (1985). Ethnic groups in conflict. Berkley: University of California Press.
Kiras,J. D. (2007). Irregular warfare: Terrorism and insurgency in understanding modern warfare 224. Retrieved from:
http/www.indianstrategicknowledgeonline.com/web/baylis3e_ch09.pdf
Maiangwa, J. S. (2014). The concept of terrorism in Africa. Kaduna: Pyla-mak Publishers.
Maurice, O. (2020). Has counter-terrorism become a profitable business in Nigeria?
Mayer, E. (1976). Kinds of aggression and their psychological basis. In E. K. Mayer (Ed.), Psychology of aggression and implication for control, New York: Rachen Press.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online. (2020). Security. Retrieved from https://www.merria wester.com/dictionary/security
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Nwogwugwu, N., Alao, D. O., & Ikechi-Ekpendu, C. (2018). Community policing, community development associations, and combating terrorism in Northeast, Nigeria. In S. Ibrahim, H. Saliu, & A. Okolie (Eds.) Elections, security challenges and African development pp. 326-355. A publication of the Nigerian Political Science Association.
Okengwu, K. (2019). Ethno-terrorism, separatists agitations, and nation building in Nigeria, Babcock University Journal of History and International Studies, 4(1),41-62
Olugbode, M. (2016, April 7). Boko Haram destruction in North-east estimated at N1.8tn. Retrieved from: http://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2016/04/07/boko-haram-destruction-in-north-east-estimated-at-ni.8tn/
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Parker, T. & Sitter, N. (2016) The Four horsemen of terrorism: Its not waves, its strains. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(2), 197-216
Ploch, L. (2010). Countering terrorism in East Africa: The US response (CRS Report No. R41473). Washington DC: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from: http://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/R41473.pdf.
Rahim, Z. (2019, June 17). Nigeria attack: At least 30 killed in triple suicide bombing. Independent News. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.independent. co. UK/news/world/Africa/Nigeria-terror-attack-Boko-haram-suicide-bomb-konduga-death-toll-a8961856.html%3famp
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Rosenje, M. O., & Adeniyi, O. P. (2020). The impact of banditry on Nigeria’s security in the Fourth Republic: An evaluation of Nigeria’s Northwest. In Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development1 (1).A publication of the Development of Political Science, Federal University, Gusau, Zamfara State, Nigeria.
Saliu, H., & Saka, L. (2019). Nigeria’s counter-terrorism strategy against the Boko Haram in the North-East: Examining the challenges of a disjointed state response. Studies in Politics and Society 7.A journal publication of the Nigerian Political Science Association.
Sloan, S. (1978). International terrorism: An academic quest, operational art and policy implications. Journal of International Affairs, 32(1), 1-5.
Solomon, H. (2015). Terrorism and counter-terrorism in African: Fighting insurgency from Al-Shabab, Ansar Din and Boko Haram. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
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Uzochukwu, M. (2014).Challenges in Nigeria and solutions on how to resolve them. Politics and Social Issues, 22(4), 112-135
Vanguard Newspapers (2015). Dansuki arms deal scandal and blood of the innocent. Retrieved from:http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/12/dansuki-arms-deal-scandal-and-blood-of-the-innocent/
Weinberg, L., Pedahzur, A., & Hirsch-Hoefler, S. (2010). The challenges of conceptualizing terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 16(4), 777-794.
Whitaker, D.J. (2001). The terrorism reader. London: Routledge Kegan Paul.
Wilkinson, P. (1977). Terrorism and the liberal state. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
World Bank (2006).Key development data and statistics. Retrieved from: web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/datastatistics/0,contentmdk:20535285-menupk:1192694-pagepk: 64133150-pipk: 64133175-thesitepk:239419,00.html.
Yates, A. (1962). Frustration and conflict. London: Methuen.
Zalma, A. (2011). The history of terrorism. Retrieved from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/political violence
Adepelumi, P. A. (2018). Psychological consequences of the Boko Haram insurgency for the Nigerian children. Retrieved from www.https//scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations
Akpotor, S. (2013).Terrorism and insecurity in the Nigeria state: The challenges. Retrieved from https: search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx
Amnesty International (2015).Our job is to shoot, slaughter and kill: Boko Haram's reign of terror in North-East Nigeria. London: Amnesty International.
Asmau, D., & Abdulrasheed, O. (2020). Effects of armed banditry and human security in Kaduna state. FUDMA Journal of Politics and International Affairs (FUJOPIA), 3(2), 110-116.
Ayeni-Akeke, O. A. (2008). Foundation of political science. Ibadan: Ababa Press Limited.
Ayodeji, G. I. (2018). Corruption and Boko Haram in Nigeria, 2010-2015 In S. Ibrahim, H. Saliu, & A. Okolie (eds.) Elections, Security Challenges and African Development, (pp. 356-375). A publication of Nigerian Political Science Association.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Berkowitz, L. & Psychol, B. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2667009/ on October 5, 2020
Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A sociological analysis. New York: McGraw Hill.
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences and control. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
Best, S. G. (Ed.) (2012). Introduction to peace and conflict studies in West Africa: A reader. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Bester, P. C. (2015). The economic consequences of terrorism: A South African perspective. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Public Management, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
Bulhan, H. A. (1985). Frantz Fanon and the psychology of oppression. New York: Plenum Press.
Burgess, S. F. (2015). Comparative challenges in securing the Horn of Africa and Sahara. Comparative Strategy 34 (2), 202-217. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2015.1017381.
Daily Post, (2015). Arms deal Dansuki implicates ex-governors, PDP chiefs. Retrieved from: http://dailypost,ng/2015/12/03/2bn-arms-deal-scandal-dansuki-implicates-ex-governors-pdp-chiefs/
Davies, C. J. (1962). Towards a theory of revolution.American Psychological Review, xxvii (February).
Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. London, Great Britain: Yale University Press Limited.
Faleti, S. A. (2012). Theories of social conflict. In S. G. Best (Ed.), Introduction to peace and conflict studies in West Africa: A reader. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Feierabends, I. K., Feierabends, R., & Nesvold, B. A. (1969). Social change and political violence: Cross-national patterns. In H. T. Graham, & T. R. Gurr (Eds.), The history of violence in America. New York.
Galtung, J., & Webel, C. (2007). Introduction: Peace by peaceful conflict transformation-the transcend approach. Retrieved from https://www: scholar.google.com
Global Ease of Doing Business (2020). Ease of doing business ranking. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/pdf/db2020/Doing-Business-2020_rankings.pdf&sa=U&ved=3ahUKEwjTpLKZ-OH4AhWJN-wKHSwUAeoQFnoECAgQAg&usg=
Golder, B., & Williams, G. (2004). What is ‘terrorism’? Problems of legal definition. University of New South Wales Law Journal, 27(2), 270-295.
Gurr, T. (1980). Why men rebel. Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press.
Gus, M. (2016).Understanding terrorism: Challenges, perspectives, and issues. Retrieved from HTTPS: search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx
Gus, M. (2017). Types of terrorism.Retrievedfrom:www.researchgate.net/publication/316220694
Haruna, A. (2019, July 19). Aid worker killed, six missing as gunmen attack NGO convey in Borno. Premium Times. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/ headlines/341842-aid-worker-killed-six-missing-as-gunmen-attack-ngo-convoy-in-borno.html
Hayden, A. T. (2007). Insurgents vs guerrillas vs terrorists. Department of Defence (DOD).Military Academy Training Manual Document, US.
Heng, Y. (2002). Unraveling the ‘war’ on terrorism: A risk management exercise in war clothing? Security and Dialogue, 33 (2), 227-242.
Horowitz, D. (1985). Ethnic groups in conflict. Berkley: University of California Press.
Kiras,J. D. (2007). Irregular warfare: Terrorism and insurgency in understanding modern warfare 224. Retrieved from:
http/www.indianstrategicknowledgeonline.com/web/baylis3e_ch09.pdf
Maiangwa, J. S. (2014). The concept of terrorism in Africa. Kaduna: Pyla-mak Publishers.
Maurice, O. (2020). Has counter-terrorism become a profitable business in Nigeria?
Mayer, E. (1976). Kinds of aggression and their psychological basis. In E. K. Mayer (Ed.), Psychology of aggression and implication for control, New York: Rachen Press.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online. (2020). Security. Retrieved from https://www.merria wester.com/dictionary/security
Moghadam, A., Berger, R., & Bellakova, P. (2014). Say terrorist, think insurgent: Labelling and analyzing contemporary terrorist actors. Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(5), 2-17.
Moghadam, A., Berger, R., & Beliakova, P.(2014). Say terrorist, think insurgent: Labelling and analyzing contemporary terrorist actors. Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(5), 2-17.
Morozov, N. (1880). “The terrorist struggle”. Fully reprinted in Violence in politics .terror and political assassination in Eastern Europe and Russia, F. Gross (Ed.) The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1972.
Nwogwugwu, N., Alao, D. O., & Ikechi-Ekpendu, C. (2018). Community policing, community development associations, and combating terrorism in Northeast, Nigeria. In S. Ibrahim, H. Saliu, & A. Okolie (Eds.) Elections, security challenges and African development pp. 326-355. A publication of the Nigerian Political Science Association.
Okengwu, K. (2019). Ethno-terrorism, separatists agitations, and nation building in Nigeria, Babcock University Journal of History and International Studies, 4(1),41-62
Olugbode, M. (2016, April 7). Boko Haram destruction in North-east estimated at N1.8tn. Retrieved from: http://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2016/04/07/boko-haram-destruction-in-north-east-estimated-at-ni.8tn/
Otinche, S. I. (2018). Globalization and insurgency operations in Nigeria: An overview. In S. Ibrahim, H. Saliu & A. Okolie (Eds.) Elections, security challenges and African development pp. 294-313.A publication of the Nigerian Political Science Association.
Parker, T. & Sitter, N. (2016) The Four horsemen of terrorism: Its not waves, its strains. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(2), 197-216
Ploch, L. (2010). Countering terrorism in East Africa: The US response (CRS Report No. R41473). Washington DC: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from: http://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/R41473.pdf.
Rahim, Z. (2019, June 17). Nigeria attack: At least 30 killed in triple suicide bombing. Independent News. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.independent. co. UK/news/world/Africa/Nigeria-terror-attack-Boko-haram-suicide-bomb-konduga-death-toll-a8961856.html%3famp
Rapaport, D. (2004). The four-modern terrorism in attacking terrorism: Elements of a grand strategy, Audrey Kurth Cronin, James M. Ludes, (eds.) Washington DC: Georgetown Press. Retrieved from: https://issafrica.org/iss-today/has-counter-terrorism-become-a-profitable-business-in-nigeria. On the September 18, 2020.
Roberts, A. (2002, September 11). The changing faces of terrorism. In BBC News.
Rosenje, M. O. (2018). Political economy of Boko Haram insurgency and terrorism in Nigeria (2009-2017). Hyuku Journal of Politics and Development, 21), 156-175.
Rosenje, M. O., & Adeniyi, O. P. (2020). The impact of banditry on Nigeria’s security in the Fourth Republic: An evaluation of Nigeria’s Northwest. In Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development1 (1).A publication of the Development of Political Science, Federal University, Gusau, Zamfara State, Nigeria.
Saliu, H., & Saka, L. (2019). Nigeria’s counter-terrorism strategy against the Boko Haram in the North-East: Examining the challenges of a disjointed state response. Studies in Politics and Society 7.A journal publication of the Nigerian Political Science Association.
Sloan, S. (1978). International terrorism: An academic quest, operational art and policy implications. Journal of International Affairs, 32(1), 1-5.
Solomon, H. (2015). Terrorism and counter-terrorism in African: Fighting insurgency from Al-Shabab, Ansar Din and Boko Haram. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
The United States Department of Defence (USDOD) (2016).Department of defense dictionary of military and associated terms (p.113). United States Joint Publication1-02.
Ufot, A. P., Peter, A. O., John, O. E. & Anietie, J. A. (2014). Essential element of security and their applications in ensuring stability and integration of Nigeria. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 5(3), 1-30.
United Nations (2016). Letter dated January 18 2016 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1373 (2001) concerning counter-terrorism addressed to the President of the Security Council
United Nations (UN) (2004). Security Council acts unanimously to adopt a resolution strongly condemning terrorism as one of the most serious threats to peace. Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/News/ Press/docs/2004/sc8214.doc.htm
United Nations News Service (2001, November). Press Release GA=9971: Terrorism must be addressed in parallel with poverty, underdevelopment and inequality, General Assembly is told.
United Nations Security Council Report (2004).
United Nations Treaty Collection (2022). International Convention for the suppression of the financing of terrorism. Chapter XVIII: Penal Matters. Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org.pages/viewsDetails/aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIIII-II&chapter=18&clang=_en
United Nations.(2001). Global survey of the implementation of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001). Printed at UN, Geneva-1615962(E)-October 2016-300-S/2016/49
United Nations.(2003) Legislative guide to the Universal Anti-Terrorism Conventions and Protocols.
United State Department of State (2018).Country report on terrorism 2017. Chapter 5, Boko Haram, September 19. Retrieved from https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1445026.html
United States Department of State. (2019).Country reports on terrorism 2019. Nigeria Bureau of Counterterrorism https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/nigeria/
Uzochukwu, M. (2014).Challenges in Nigeria and solutions on how to resolve them. Politics and Social Issues, 22(4), 112-135
Vanguard Newspapers (2015). Dansuki arms deal scandal and blood of the innocent. Retrieved from:http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/12/dansuki-arms-deal-scandal-and-blood-of-the-innocent/
Weinberg, L., Pedahzur, A., & Hirsch-Hoefler, S. (2010). The challenges of conceptualizing terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 16(4), 777-794.
Whitaker, D.J. (2001). The terrorism reader. London: Routledge Kegan Paul.
Wilkinson, P. (1977). Terrorism and the liberal state. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
World Bank (2006).Key development data and statistics. Retrieved from: web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/datastatistics/0,contentmdk:20535285-menupk:1192694-pagepk: 64133150-pipk: 64133175-thesitepk:239419,00.html.
Yates, A. (1962). Frustration and conflict. London: Methuen.
Zalma, A. (2011). The history of terrorism. Retrieved from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/political violence